Efficacy
Can it work under ideal conditions?
RESEARCH & EVIDENCE
Better evidence.
Better decisions.
An evidence-based approach asks what blockchain can achieve, where it is useful, and how its outcomes compare with the alternatives.
Explore research, tutorials & case studies ↓Evidence-Based Blockchain: The Study at a Glance
BBA’s infographic summarises the global study by Naseem Naqvi and Mureed Hussain, including the quality of evidence and the PCIO assessment framework.
PCIO Framework
Structure an answerable question using Problem, Comparison, Intervention and Outcome. Then use the 5A’s to find, appraise and apply evidence, and assess what happens in practice.
P
Problem
Define the problem, who it affects and the needs the decision must address.
Explore →CComparison
Identify the existing approach or alternative against which blockchain will be evaluated.
Explore →IIntervention
Specify the blockchain intervention and how it is intended to address the problem.
Explore →OOutcome
Define measurable outcomes and assess the benefits, costs and effects that matter.
Explore →FROM QUESTION TO PRACTICE
The 5A’s of Evidence-Based Blockchain
PCIO structures the question. The 5A’s guide how evidence informs the decision and how its results are evaluated.
- 01
Ask
Formulate an answerable question using the PCIO Framework.
- 02
Acquire
Find the best available evidence from research, organisations, stakeholders and professional expertise.
- 03
Appraise
Critically evaluate the evidence for quality, relevance and limitations.
- 04
Apply
Bring the evidence together with expertise and stakeholder needs to inform the decision.
- 05
Assess
Evaluate the results and the decision-making process, and use what you learn to improve practice.
FROM THE UK’S NATIONAL BLOCKCHAIN ROADMAP · JULY 2021
From a defined problem to measurable impact.
The Roadmap connects PCIO with regular evaluation of blockchain programmes. It asks three distinct questions: can an intervention work, does it work in practice, and is it worth the resources it requires?
Effectiveness
Does it work in real-world settings?
Efficiency
Is it worth it, considering the outcomes and resources used?
Look beyond the technology.
The Roadmap calls for regular audits of the societal impact of blockchain applications. Evaluate who benefits, what changes, and whether the intervention continues to serve its intended communities.
Its impact diagram spans enterprise and industry, public policy, society and culture, government and politics, health and quality of life, the environment, academia, and international activity.
Source: BBA / CEBB, An Excellence Standards Framework for the UK’s National Blockchain Roadmap (Vision 2030), July 2021. Original figure credits are retained in the reproduced pages.
Quality of evidence: Levels 1–4.
The Roadmap’s framework distinguishes the strength of the evidence from the recommendation made from it. These summaries sit alongside the original table and its full qualifications.
- Level 1: Multiple independent peer-reviewed studies, critically appraised evidence synthesis, systematic reviews and high-quality comparative research.
- Level 2: A single peer-reviewed research article or interventional case study, high-power comparative industry research, a critical review or analytical essay.
- Level 3: Non-peer-reviewed case studies, lower-power comparative research, white papers, consensus reports and commentary.
- Level 4: Untested hypotheses, opinions without explicit critical appraisal, anecdotes, blog posts or work without a scientific publication or case study.
Grades A–D separately describe the basis for recommending an action, weighing evidence, benefits, risks and bias. A level of evidence should not be treated as an automatic recommendation grade.
From activity to a Point of Reference.
Professor Naseem Naqvi distinguishes immediate activity and results from longer-term changes in people’s lives. The ambition is for work with demonstrated impact to become a Point of Reference (POR) for other people and organisations.
- Inputs
Resources and effort invested. - Outputs
What the activities produce. - Outcomes
The benefits of those results. - Impact
Longer-term changes in lives and systems. - Point of Reference (POR)
Work that others refer to and learn from.
Source: Professor Naqvi’s explanation of outputs, outcomes, impact and Point of Reference ↗.
The Evidence-Based Blockchain library
From an idea to a point of reference.
Explore the work of Professor Naseem Naqvi and colleagues: original research, practical frameworks, teaching, published discussion and case studies. Follow the sources behind PCIO, the five As and the journey from evidence to societal impact.
The framework in practice
Evidence-Based Blockchain for agri-farming
Hannah Rudman’s “Piece of Cake” paper connects participatory action research with evidence-based DLT practice. It cites Naqvi and Hussain’s study and discusses PCIO. The CEBB infographic maps the approach to traceability and assurance of gluten-free oats.
CEBB research summary of Hannah Rudman’s study. The infographic describes a proof of concept; readers should consult the paper for its methods, scope and limitations. DOI: 10.31585/jbba-4-1-(1)2021.
Digital identity for proof-of-life
Dino Cataldo Dell’Accio and Mirko Montuori document the UN Joint Staff Pension Fund’s blockchain-based digital identity solution in the JBBA. Read the implementation paper alongside the BBA’s separate update on PCIO and its use at the UN.
The paper is the source for the implementation; the PCIO account is attributed to the BBA update. These sources do not imply UN-wide adoption or endorsement of the framework.
Original work & practical frameworks
Start with the publications behind the approach, then explore its application to research, policy and public value.
Editorial, Volume 1, Issue 2, December 2018
The early editorial identified as the origin of Evidence-Based Blockchain in reference 8 of the 2020 foundational study.
Open source ↗Evidence-Based Blockchain: Findings from a Global Study of Blockchain Projects and Start-up Companies
The foundational evaluation of 517 firms, setting out PCIO, the five As and an assessment framework. Findings describe the study period, rather than today’s industry.
Open source ↗Blockchain Research: Engaging at Scale with the Communities that Matter
A companion reading on connecting research with the communities it is intended to serve.
Open source ↗UK National Blockchain Roadmap: An Excellence Standards Framework
Read the original diagrams and recommendations: societal impact on pages 8–9, evidence quality on page 12, and evaluation and PCIO on pages 25–26.
Open source ↗Open Access Blockchain and Cryptoasset Research: Why it Matters Now More Than Ever Before
Why accessible research matters to policymakers, enterprises and society, and how open scholarship supports the translation of findings into practice.
Open source ↗Level of Evidence and Grade of Recommendation
The source cited by the Roadmap for its evidence-quality framework. Read alongside the separate Levels 1–4 and recommendation Grades A–D.
Open source ↗Public programmes, randomised trials and blockchain policy
Naqvi draws on public-programme evaluation to make the case for evidence-informed blockchain policy. The post highlights randomised controlled trials and the importance of testing whether interventions deliver their intended outcomes.
Watch, listen & learn
Hear Professor Naseem Naqvi explain the questions, methods and judgement behind Evidence-Based Blockchain.
Blockchain Innovators #11 — Conor Svensson and Dr Naseem Naqvi
An extended introduction to PCIO, peer review, research quality and the National Blockchain Roadmap. Includes a readable transcript.
Open source ↗Episode 113: Evidence-Based Blockchain
Ray Dogum’s interview with Naseem Naqvi explores comparison, outcomes, societal impact and research excellence. The author’s post links to the episode.
Open source ↗In his accompanying post of 26 January 2023, Naqvi highlights a priority for industry: “Evidence-based Blockchain > Consortium capabilities > Tech stack.”
View the original post and video ↗Outputs, Outcomes, Impact & Point of Reference
Follow the progression from inputs to outputs, outcomes, societal impact and work that becomes a point of reference for others.
Open source ↗Blockchain — From Evidence to Impact: Dubai Keynote
A practical account of asking the right questions, running pilots, learning from implementation and improving interventions.
Open source ↗Evidence-based Blockchain with Dr Naseem Naqvi
A discussion of scientific discipline, evidence quality and whether a proposed solution can work, does work and is worth pursuing.
Open source ↗Dr. Naseem Naqvi: Leading Blockchain Innovation
A published account of Naqvi’s explanation of PCIO and the role of evidence in investment, development and implementation decisions.
Open source ↗Cited & discussed in the literature
These publications explicitly reference the foundational research or discuss Naqvi’s evidence-assessment approach. A citation shows scholarly use; it is not, by itself, proof of a successful deployment.
The use of blockchain technology in the scientific research workflow
The lessons-learned section discusses Naqvi’s evidence-assessment approach and cites the 2020 Evidence-Based Blockchain study.
Open source ↗Blockchain technology: driving change in the scientific research workflow
This white paper by Bonnie Lawlor, affiliated with the U.S. National Committee for IUPAC, and colleagues discusses Dr Naseem Naqvi’s Evidence Based Blockchain approach to evaluating potential blockchain applications. On page 305, it describes assessing the problem, proposed intervention, comparison with existing practice and evidence of outcomes. References 155–156 cite CEBB and the foundational JBBA study. BBA highlights this as a citation of its PCIO framework; the paper uses the ordering “PICO”.
Read the published paper ↗View BBA’s citation announcement ↗Blockchain, Self-Sovereign Identity and Digital Credentials: Promise Versus Praxis in Education
Examines educational credentials and the gap between promise and implementation. Includes Naqvi and Hussain’s 2020 study in its references.
Open source ↗Can Blockchain Improve Healthcare Management?
A healthcare-management discussion whose bibliography cites the foundational Evidence-Based Blockchain study.
Open source ↗In books & innovation handbooks
Evidence-Based Blockchain appears in books for enterprise innovators and practitioners. These two documented references show the approach reaching readers beyond the original research publications.
The Blockchain Innovator’s Handbook
The book reproduces an evidence-quality pyramid credited to Naseem Naqvi and Mureed Hussain’s Evidence-Based Blockchain study. Its contents list “An evidence-based approach” in Chapter 8, Discovery Part Two, beginning on page 136.
Naqvi’s post of 23 July 2023 shows the book and the printed source credit—an example of the research informing guidance for enterprise innovators.
ISBN 9781781336427. The free sample includes the contents and Chapter 3; the photographed passage documents the EBB attribution.
Blockchain Foundations: For the Internet of Value
Page 396 explicitly discusses Evidence-Based Blockchain, defining the approach and making the case for evidence-informed decisions in applied blockchain. The passage connects professional expertise with organisational, stakeholder and scientific evidence, and highlights its relevance to business practice.
Explore the book ↗Source photograph: Naseem Naqvi’s post of 10 February 2024, showing page 396 and the book cover.
Developing the research community
Initiatives connecting researchers with the Centre for Evidence-Based Blockchain.
Supporting MSc and PhD researchers through CEBB
Ahead of the sixth Blockchain International Scientific Conference, BBA announced a one-year complimentary membership of its Centre for Evidence-Based Blockchain for MSc and PhD researchers attending ISC2024. The initiative illustrates BBA’s work to connect postgraduate researchers with the evidence-based blockchain community.
Read BBA’s original announcement ↗Historical initiative associated with ISC2024. The original announcement sets out eligibility; this entry does not advertise a current membership offer.
Continue exploring
Explore the wider publication record and visual research collection.
Selected source material reviewed September 2026. Dates and findings belong to the original publications. Some external platforms require sign-in; publisher access conditions may vary.